Activities and Programs

Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development

Acting as a Global Clearinghouse for Indigenous Knowledge Systems

The documentation unit and library of the Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development (CIKARD) has so far collected, catalogued, and preserved more than 4,000 documents pertaining to indigenous knowledge systems from all over the globe. Most of the documents are unpublished 'gray literature' and are not available in libraries. A recent publication of the U.S. National Research Council (1992: 10), supporting this role of CIKARD, states that "Development agencies should place greater emphasis on, and assume a stronger role in, systematizing the local knowledge base--indigenous knowledge, 'gray literature,' anecdotal information. A vast heritage of knowledge about species, ecosystems, and their use exists, but it does not appear in the world literature, being either insufficiently "scientific" or not "developmental."

Designing Training Manuals on Methodologies for Recording Indigenous Knowledge Systems

A consortium of Iowa Institutions of Higher Education, representing three state universities and the state's largest community college, with their Nigerian counterpart institutes, has been awarded a Co-operative Agreement by USAID under the University Development Linkage Project (UDLP). The purpose of the UDLP is to strengthen institutional capacities for research and training in several key areas of development planning and management. CIKARD at Iowa State University is one of the member institutions in the consortium. The program objectives of the UDLP focus on eight principal areas of which indigenous knowledge systems is a central one. Workshops are currently being conducted in the eight institutions to gain an understanding of and an appreciation for the role of indigenous knowledge systems in agriculture, rural development, and natural resource management.

As part of the UDLP, a training manual is currently in the production process at CIKARD. The purpose of the manual is to develop methodologies for recording and incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into agricultural and natural resource management programs. Training modules are designed to illustrate the procedure for recording indigenous knowledge systems using cases specifically drawn from developing country situations.

Providing a Global Leadership to Regional and National Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers

CIKARD recognized that the establishment of regional and national indigenous knowledge resource centers is the most cost-effective way of systematically recording, documenting, and using this knowledge. With this broad perspective in view, programs to establish regional and national indigenous knowledge resource centers were developed in collaboration with a number of national-level organizations. In this connection, the roles of CIKARD are to:

  1. develop guidelines to establish national indigenous knowledge resource centers;
  2. coordinate the activities of regional and national centers;
  3. compile a list of documents held at CIKARD and make it available to the centers;
  4. conduct global literature searches and compile annotated bibliographies; and
  5. develop human resources for the regional/ national indigenous knowledge resource centers.

There are now 19 formally established global, regional, and national centers: two with regional roles--the African Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge (ARCIK) and the Regional Program for the Promotion of Indigenous Knowledge in Asia (REPPIKA)--and 14 with national roles-- GhaRCIK (Ghana), INRIK (Indonesia), RIDSCA (Mexico), KENRIK (Kenya), Phi RCSDIK (Philippines), SLARCIK (Sri Lanka), and VERSIK (Venezuela), BURCIK (Burkina Faso), SARCIK (South Africa), BRARCIK (Brazil), NIRCIK (Nigeria), URURCIK (Uruguay), CIKO (Cameroon), and MARCIK (Madagascar). Seventeen other centers are in the process of being formally established.

The functions of regional and national indigenous knowledge resource centers are to: (1) provide a regional/ national data management function where published and unpublished information on indigenous knowledge is systematically documented for use by development practitioners, and (2) facilitate the active participation of indigenous people in the conservation, utilization, and dissemination of their specialized knowledge through in situ knowledge banks, involvement in research and development activities, farmer-to-farmer training, and farmer consultancies. The established centers are in the process of embarking on national surveys to record and inventory the nation's indigenous knowledge so it can be preserved in documentation units for use by development practitioners in participatory approaches.

It is important to mention that a number of former CIKARD research associates are currently occupying key positions in the regional/ national indigenous knowledge resource centers. For instance, Evelyn Mathias-Mundy, a former CIKARD associate, is presently the coordinator of REPPIKA. Antonio Macias-Lopeza, a former CIKARD associate, is presently the coordinator of RIDSCA. CIKARD, the Leiden Ethnosystems and Development Program (LEAD) at Leiden University, and The Center for International Research and Advisory Networks (CIRAN), The Hague, work closely with colleagues at the regional and national centers to support global networking and information flow through the publication of the quarterly Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor and a global directory of individuals and institutions involved in indigenous knowledge, establishment of uniform electronic communications and database systems, and by the translation of key documents into French and Spanish.

Developing Research Methodologies on Indigenous Knowledge Systems

CIKARD is currently developing appropriate qualitative and quantitative methods to undertake research on indigenous knowledge systems. Cost-effective and reliable research methods are being developed with an emphasis on design procedures, sampling methods, statistical tools, and interpretation of indigenous knowledge data. The methodologies are already developed in the following areas:

  1. criteria to evaluate indigenous knowledge systems;
  2. identification of the structure and functions of indigenous organizations;
  3. criteria to evaluate farmer experiments;
  4. utilization criteria for indigenous agricultural and natural resource management technologies;
  5. correlations among indigenous knowledge and socioeconomic and cultural variables;
  6. indigenous systems of environmental accounting;
  7. analysis of the socio-cultural impact on natural resource management; and
  8. case study methods on indigenous innovations.

The research methodologies thus developed at CIKARD are being disseminated periodically to researchers involved in indigenous knowledge research.

Conducting Interdisciplinary Research on Indigenous Knowledge

CIKARD research associates are working on a number of multidisciplinary research projects identifying, analyzing, and evaluating indigenous knowledge systems. They represent disciplines such as agricultural extension and education, anthropology, sociology, agricultural economics, soil science, agronomy, entomology, forestry, animal science, international development studies, journalism and mass communication, and agricultural engineering.

CIKARD has conducted a natural resource management project in the Kolli Hills of India in collaboration with the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, India. Data on indigenous natural resource management practices were collected. These include conserving and maintaining forest resources, indigenous tree classification systems, terrace planting techniques, trees suited for different altitudes, tree species for providing shade for plantation crops, forest product marketing strategies, intercropping in forest gardens, water streams, and medicinal and herbal values of wild trees. The indigenous natural resource management technologies play a significant role in providing a year round supply of forest products (mainly fruits) to the markets. CIKARD associates have also conducted research among the following indigenous people: Gounda and Palla of India, Yoruba, Kulere, and Hausa of Nigeria, Mossi of Burkina Faso, and Shona of Zimbabwe.

In another case from India, women laborers formed a loosely structured, local organization to rear ducks in common property resources such as communal tanks. Droppings of ducks in the communal tanks increase the fish population. The favorable environment for the growth of fish encourages male laborers to spend their leisure time catching fish in the tank. During the summer periods, farmers use the tank silt, which improves the fertility and productivity of the soils. The duck-fish integrated system is an excellent example to show how increased access to common property resources provide a diversified food base for the landless labor households while sustaining the natural resources.

Collaborating with CGIAR centers

One of the on-going programs of CIKARD is to initiate collaboration with CGIAR institutions. Emphasis is now being given in the CGIAR system to a participatory approach to research that aims to tap into traditional knowledge and local farmers' understanding of sustainable farming practices and to blend this with scientifically developed improved technology. Hence, CIKARD is working to create an awareness among CGIAR institutions regarding where indigenous knowledge components can become an input for their research projects. CIKARD also plays an intermediary role by linking the regional indigenous knowledge resource centers with appropriate CGIAR institutions. There are already examples of collaboration between indigenous knowledge resource centers and members of the CGIAR. A recent inventory of Nigerian soil classification and management systems was sponsored jointly by the African Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge (ARCIK) and the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). Currently, the Regional Program for the Promotion of Indigenous Knowledge in Asia (REPPIKA) is discussing possible collaborative ventures with the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM).

Using Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Indigenous knowledge systems should be integrated into development programs if we are to achieve desired levels of agricultural production by using the natural resources in a sustainable manner. Such integration of indigenous and introduced systems would certainly pave the way for empowering local communities and indigenous people. However, the integration requires a solid framework with realistic assumptions based on in-depth field analyses. With this perspective in view, CIKARD has developed a framework for incorporating indigenous knowledge systems into national, regional, and nongovernmental organizations. The specific objectives of this framework are to: (1) strengthen the capacities of regional, local, and nongovernmental organizations involved in agricultural and natural resource management; (2) build upon indigenous people's knowledge that are acquired through various processes such as indigenous communication and local experimentation; and (3) generate agricultural and natural resource technological options rather than fixed technical packages.

The specific components of the framework are to:

  1. record indigenous knowledge systems;
  2. form a sustainable agricultural and natural resource management technology development consortium;
  3. develop a research agenda;
  4. conduct participatory on-station research;
  5. conduct on-farm farmer oriented research;
  6. develop programs to validate farmer experimentation;
  7. facilitate innovator workshops;
  8. disseminate agricultural and natural resource management technologies (indigenous and introduced); and
  9. evaluate the technologies for their impact on sustainability, productivity, and equity.

CIKARD is currently working to disseminate this framework to the regional and national centers so that it can be used as a baseline for their projects.

Policy interventions for local government agencies are formulated at CIKARD based on indigenous knowledge. For instance, to conserve the duck-fish production system, strengthening the rural markets for marketing of surplus eggs has been suggested as one of the policy options. In another case, to conserve the forests in the Kolli Hills, it is necessary to strengthen the existing tribal cooperative society that supports the indigenous people by providing credit with low interest rates. CIKARD believes that formulating appropriate policy interventions would lead to people-oriented technical assistance programs.

Conducting Workshops and Seminars

One of the ongoing programs of CIKARD is to conduct workshops and seminars on indigenous knowledge systems both internationally and domestically. CIKARD has provided training on indigenous knowledge to agricultural research and extension scientists from countries such as India, Pakistan, Zimbabwe, Mexico, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Peru, and Ecuador. CIKARD has completed consultancies and conducted workshops and seminars within the past several years for the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, International Development Research Centre (Ottawa, Singapore, and Dakar), FAO, WHO, USAID, IRRI, IITA, ICLARM, ISNAR, IFDC, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Academia Sinica (Taiwan), Dutch Ministry of Development Cooperation, IIRR, Winrock International, US National Research Council, and a wide variety of universities in numerous countries. In addition, CIKARD sponsors the annual CIKARD lecture series inviting key people to speak on indigenous knowledge as they relate to agricultural and natural resource management.

Supporting the International Year for Indigenous People, CIKARD has planned to undertake a number of research and development activities towards empowering indigenous people. CIKARD has organized its annual lecture series scheduled for February 16-17, 1993, on indigenous natural resource management to commemorate the International Year for Indigenous People. The speakers are themselves indigenous peoples.

Publishing Monographs, Annotated Bibliographies, and Monographs on Indigenous Knowledge

CIKARD compiles and publishes annotated bibliographies, monographs, and books on selected topics related to indigenous knowledge systems. An international book series on indigenous knowledge and development has been established with Intermediate Technology Publications, London. Four books on indigenous knowledge are in the process of production. Six manuscripts are in the review process. The Technology and Social Change Program (TSC) regularly produces monographs and bibliographies on indigenous knowledge systems. One of the bibliographies on indigenous knowledge, Ethnoveterinary medicine: an annotated bibliography, authored by Evelyn Mathias-Mundy and Constance M. McCorkle, received an honorable mention from the Oberly Award of the American Library Association. The award is given to an American citizen for the best bibliography in the field of agriculture in the preceding two-year period. CIKARD Director D. M. Warren has edited a special double-issue volume on indigenous agricultural knowledge systems and development for Agriculture and Human Values.

Selected Publications of CIKARD Associates Related to Indigenous Knowledge and International Development

CIKARD research associates are involved in a number of interdisciplinary research projects related to indigenous knowledge and international development. The output of these research efforts have been published in books, monographs, and international journals. Following is a selected list of publications of the CIKARD team:

Babu, S. C., D. M. Warren and B. Rajasekaran. 1994. "Expert Systems for Utilizing Indigenous Technical Knowledge in Farming Systems Research: The Case of Crop Varietal Selection." In D. M. Warren, L. J. Slikkerveer, and D. Brokensha (eds.) The Cultural Dimension of Development: Indigenous Knowledge Systems, London : Intermediate Technology Publications (in press).

Babu, S. C. and B. Rajasekaran 1991. "Agroforestry, Attitudes Towards Risk and Nutritional Availability: A Case Study of South Indian Farming Systems." Agroforestry Systems 15 (1): 1-16.

Cashman, K. "Indigenous Knowledge and International Agricultural Research; Where Do We Go From Here?" pp. 10-20, In D. M. Warren, L. J. Slikkerveer, and S. O. Titilola (eds.), Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Implications for Agriculture and International Development. Studies in Technology and Social Change No. 11. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University.

Mathias-Mundy, E. and C. McCorkle. 1989. Ethnoveterinary Medicine: An Annotated Bibliography. Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change No. 6. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University.

Mathias-Mundy, E., O. Muchena., G. McKiernan, and P. Mundy. 1992. Indigenous Technical Knowledge of Private Tree Management: A Bibliographic Report. Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change No. 7. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University.

Mundy, P. and L. Compton. 1991. Indigenous Communication and Indigenous Knowledge. Development Communication Report 74 (3): 1-3.

Pawluk, Roman, J. A. Sandor, and J. A. Tabor. 1992. "The Role of Indigenous Soil Knowledge in Agricultural Development." Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 47 (4): 298-302.

Rajasekaran, B. 1990. "Economics of Irrigated Rice Production in Mali." A Study Report, Sahelian Agriculture Division, Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

Rajasekaran, B. and D. M. Warren. 1990. "The Role of Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Drought Relief Activities." Report: Drought Disaster Workshop, United States Agency for International Development, USAID, Washington, D.C. May 1990.

Rajasekaran, B., D. M. Warren and S. C. Babu 1991. "Indigenous Natural Resource Management Systems for Sustainable Agricultural Development - A Global Perspective." Journal of International Development 3 (4): 387-402.

Rajasekaran, B. and D. M. Warren. 1994. "Indigenous Rice Taxonomies and Farmers' Rice Production Decision-Making Systems in South India." In D. M. Warren, L. J. Slikkerveer, and D. Brokensha (eds.) The Cultural Dimension of Development: Indigenous Knowledge Systems, London : Intermediate Technology Publications (in press).

Rajasekaran, B. and M. B. Whiteford 1992. "Rice-Crab Production in South India: The Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Designing Food Security Policies." Food Policy 18 (3): 237-247.

Schafer, J. 1989. "Utilizing Indigenous Agricultural Knowledge in the Planning of Agricultural Research Projects Designed to Aid Small-scale Farmers." pp. 116-120, In D. M. Warren, L. J. Slikkerveer, and S. O. Titilola (eds.), Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Implications for Agriculture and International Development. Studies in Technology and Social Change No. 11. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University.

Slaybaugh-Mitchell, T. 1994. Indigenous Livestock Production and Husbandry: An Annotated Bibliography. Bibliographies in Technology and Social Change No. 8. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University (in preparation).

Titilola, S. O. 1990. The Economics of Incorporating Indigenous Knowledge Systems into Agricultural Development: A Model and Analytical Framework. Studies in Technology and Social Change No. 17. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University.

Warren, D. M. 1989. "Linking Scientific and Indigenous Agricultural Systems." pp. 153-170, In J. L. Compton, (ed.), The Transformation of International Agricultural Research and Development. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.

Warren, D. M. 1990a. "Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development." Background paper for Seminar Series on Sociology and Natural Resource Management. The World Bank, Washington, D.C. December 3, 1990.

Warren, D. M. 1990b. "Indigenous Knowledge Systems for Sustainable Agriculture in Africa." Keynote Address, International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture in Africa. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio State University, Center for African Studies.

Warren, D. M. 1991a. The Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Facilitating the Agricultural Extension Process. Paper presented at International Workshop on Agricultural Knowledge Systems and the Role of Extension. Bad Boll, Germany, May 21-24, 1991.

Warren, D. M. 1991b. Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development. World Bank Discussion Paper No. 127. Washington, D.C. : The World Bank.

Warren, D. M. 1992a. "Indigenous knowledge, Biodiversity Conservation and Development." Keynote Address at International Conference on Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa: Local Initiatives and Institutional Roles. Nairobi, Kenya August 30 - September 3, 1992.

Warren, D. M. 1992b. "Using Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development." A Concept Paper for Exploring the Potential Utility of The Global Network of Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers for International and National Agricultural Research Centers. Ames, Iowa: CIKARD, Iowa State University.

Warren, D. M. 1992c. "Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development: A Review of Critical Research Areas and Policy Issues." International Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development. Silang, Cavite, Philippines, September 20-26, 1992.

Warren, D. M. 1992d. Strengthening Indigenous Nigerian Organizations and Associations for Rural Development: The Case of Ara Community. Occasional Paper No. 1. Ibadan: African Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge.

Warren, D. M. 1992e. A Preliminary Analysis of Indigenous Soil Classification and Management Systems in Four Ecozones of Nigeria. Discussion Paper RCMD 92/1. Ibadan, Nigeria: Resources and Crop Management Division (RCMD), International Institute of Tropical Agriculture.

Warren, D. M., L. J. Slikkerveer and S. O. Titilola. (Eds). 1989. Indigenous Knowledge Systems; Implications for Agriculture and International Development. Studies in Technology and Social Change No. 11. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University.

Yoder, R. 1990. Amish Agriculture in Iowa: Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Small-Farm Systems. Studies in Technology and Social Change No. 15. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State University.